Carbohydrates

·         Glycolysis is the process whereby glucose molecule is hydrolyzed in the body in order to obtain ATP and Pyruvate.

·         Glycogenesis is the process of glycogen formation which takes place in the liver and stored there.

·         Glycogenolysis is the process of splitting glycogen. Glycogen molecules do not remain in the cell permanently but are eventually broken apart (hydrolysed). Glycogenolysis alone can maintain homeostasis of blood glucose concentrate for only a few hours, since the body can store only small amount of glycogen.

·         Gluconeogenesis is the formation of the new glucose in the sense that it is made from protein or less frequently from the glycerol or fats which chiefly occurs in the liver.

o   The new glucose produced from protein or fats by gluconeogenesis diffuses out of the liver cells into the blood.

·         Metabolism is the complex, interactive set of chemical process that makes life possible.

o   Metabolism is made up of two major processes, catabolism and anabolism.

o   Each of these in turn consists of a series of enzyme-catalyzed chemical reactions known as metabolic pathway.

o   Catabolism releases energy in two forms heat and chemical energy. The amount heat generated is relatively large; so large in fact it would hardboiled cells if it were released in one large burst. Fortunately, this does not happen.

o   Heat is practically useless as an energy source for cell in that they cannot use it to do their work. However this heat is important in maintaining the homeostasis of body temperature

o   Chemical energy released by catabolism is more obviously useful. It cannot, however, be used directly for biological reactions. First it must be transferred to the high-energy molecule of adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

o   ATP is one of the most important compounds in the world because it supplies energy directly to the energy-using reactions of all cells in all kind of living organisms.

o   Adding water (H₂O) to ATP yield a phosphate group, adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and energy which is used for anabolism and other cell work.

o   The Citric acid cycle is the central metabolic pathway that completes the oxidative degradation of metabolites.

·         Glucose Tolerance is ability of the body to tolerate or cope with the standard dose of glucose based on their normal balance of insulin versus other hormones (homeostasis).

·         Oral Glucose Tolerance Test (OGTT): OGGT is a series of blood glucose test results taken over time after a patient has received a standard dose of oral glucose solution.

 

Source of Carbohydrates

·         Carbohydrates are found in most of the foods that we eat.

·         Complex carbohydrates – polysaccharides e.g. starches in vegetables, grains and other plant tissues are broken down into simpler carbohydrates before they are absorbed as monosaccharides. 

·         Carbohydrates (CHO) are named because they have one molecule of water for every carbon.  The basic unit is a monosaccharide which contains 4,5 or 6 carbons and H₂O

·         Disaccharides are formed from the linkage of two monosaccharides to form disaccharides by a glycosidic bond. Several physiogically important disaccharides are sucrose, lactose and maltose.

 

 

·         Polysaccharides are the most common carbohydrates found in nature, which occur in the form of high molecular weight polymers, made of monosaccharides. The predominant monosaccharide found in polysaccharides is D-glucose.

·         Cellulose – a major compound of most plant tissue is an important exception to this principle.

·         Since human do not make enzymes that chemically digest this complex carbohydrate (CHO), cellulose passes through our system without being broken down. Also called dietary fibers or roughage

·         Cellulose and other indigestible polysaccharides keep chyme thick enough for the digestive system to push it easily

 

Function of Carbohydrates

·         The monosaccharide in the form of carbohydrate that is a 6 carbon carbohydrate and is the most useful to the typical human cell.

·         Its function is to provide energy to the cells.

·         Other important monosaccharide – fructose and galactose are usually converted by liver cells into glucose for use by other cells of the body. The picture below is of glucose.

 

Carbohydrates Metabolism

Carbohydrate metabolism begins with the movement of glucose through cell membranes.

Glucose in the body undergoes one of three metabolic activities:

·         It is catabolised to produce Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP). This occurs in the peripheral tissues, like in the brain, muscle and kidney.

·         It is stored as glycogen. This storage occurs in liver and muscle.

·         It is converted to fatty acids. These are stored in adipose tissue as triglycerides.

·         If glucose is needed immediately upon entering the cells to supply energy, it begins the metabolic process called glycolysis (catabolism).

·         If glucose is needed immediately upon entering the cells to supply energy, it begins the metabolic process called glycolysis (catabolism).

·         Immediately on reaching the interior of a cell, glucose reacts with ATP to form glucose 6-phosphate. This step, prepares glucose for further metabolic reactions.

·         Glucokinase is an enzyme that facilitates conversion of glucose to glucose-6-phosphate. Glucokinase occurs in cells in the liver, pancreas, gut, and brain of humans

·         The major reason for this step is to prevent glucose diffusion out of the cell.

·         Glycolysis is the first process of carbohydrate catabolism. It is a metabolic pathway found in the cytoplasm of cells that converts one molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate, (pyruvic acid) and makes energy in the form of two net molecules of ATP. Glycolysis results in the net production of 2 ATP and 2 NADH ions.

·         Glycolysis consists of a series of chemical reactions. A specific enzyme catalyzes each of these reactions. Carbohydrate metabolism starts with glycolysis, which releases energy from glucose or glycogen to form two molecules of pyruvate.

·         Glycolysis is an anaerobic process, that is, it does not use oxygen. It is the only process that provide cells with energy when their oxygen supply is inadequate or even absent

·         Glycolysis is an essential process because it prepares glucose for second step in catabolism, namely the citric acid cycle.

·         Glucose itself cannot enter the cycle but it must be converted to pyruvic acid then to a compound called acetyl-CoA (coenzyme A) Then acetyl Co-A enters the Krebs cycle (or citric acid cycle), an oxygen-requiring process, through which they are completely oxidized.

·         During short bursts of strenuous activity, muscle cells use pyruvate and lactate from anaerobic respiration to supplement the ATP production from the slower aerobic respiration.

 

The citric acid cycle

·         The citric acid cycle is the final stage for the metabolism of Carbohydrates, Fats, and Amino acids.

·         This is also called the Krebs cycle or the Tricarboxylic acid cycle or Oxidative cycle.

·         In carbohydrate catabolism (the breakdown of sugars), the Citric Acid Cycle follows Glycolysis, which breaks down Glucose (a six –carbon molecule) into Pyruvate (a three-carbon molecule).

·         Glycolysis is the first stage of the whole human respiration cycle and the whole process is to break down Glucose or Glycogen into Pyruvic acid through enzymatic reaction within the cytoplasm of the cells.

·         The process results in the formation of two molecules of ATP (three if the starting product was Glycogen). Without the presence of oxygen, pyruvic acid is changed to Lactic acid and the energy production process ends.       

·         The citric acid cycle is an 8-step process. The net energy gain from one cycle is 3 NADH, 1 FADH, and 1 ATP. Thus, the total amount of energy yield from one whole glucose molecule (2 pyruvate molecules) is 6 NADH, 2 FADH, and 2 ATP.  This is a vital part of our life.

 

Clinical Significance of Glucose

·         Since this is the most important carbohydrate that enters into metabolism to provide energy, glucose is a necessary requirement from our food sources. It is regulated by hormones produced in the pancreas and other endocrine tissues to control blood glucose levels.  Disorders in regulation of blood glucose cause hyperglycemia, high blood glucose or hypoglycaemia, low blood glucose. 

·         Glucose intolerance is the term for disorders that affect glucose regulation.  It may result from abnormalities in the pancreas causing inability to produce enough insulin. 

·         Hyperglycemia means to have frequently high blood glucose levels.  It is often due to lack of functional insulin from ineffective or destruction of pancreatic beta islet cells.   With lack of insulin, there is decrease in glucose uptake and metabolism causing excess glycogenolysis and the switching of metabolism to fatty acid metabolism for energy.  This is most commonly found in diabetes mellitus.  There are 4 types of diabetes mellitus.

·         Hyperglycemia from less common causes can result from excessive secretion of epinephrine, corticosteroids, glucagon or thyroid hormones.

·         Hypoglycemia is less common but may result from excessive insulin release from a islet cell tumour or from a patient who receives too much insulin during therapy.

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